Posting on Reading Essay Example for Free

Posting on Reading EssayEducation How education is valued and how it is tied up with culture and the structure of lodge is the focal point of the article. Moreover, several factors that encourage tidy sum to attend postgraduateer education are also explored in the article. For instance, several examples about the South Korean culture were revealed in the article in order to emphasize how the view of education changes depending on the culture. For the South Koreans, education is seen as a status symbol and not a stepping-stone to acquire a job in the future. The good thing about it though is that statistics has shown that the percentage of dropouts is less in areas that believe in the relationship surrounded by education and societal value. People from antithetical walks of life affirm varying points of view regarding education. A survey conducted in order to determine the reasons why community choose to attend higher education reveals that reputation or culture and the e nhancement of an separates disposition are the topmost reasons why people value their education. At this point, people view the learning and understanding of the English language as an instrumental skill in order to accomplish an individuals aims to gain a high and respect qualified social status. Koreans nowadays are struggling to learn the English language, as it gives one a high rank in the social climate. Koreans spend time and effort in studying English that they are willing to undergo rigorous testing still to speak English well. Perhaps, the article does not only discuss education as part of culture. I think the stretch outs in this article also have strong connections with globalization. As the world moves to become a global village, people are forced to increase their chances of belonging to the international community. This objective shall only be accomplished through further education. This is probably one of the reasons why education is seen as a form of earning a hig h rank in society because being well educated and learning to speak English well keeps you in a range of belongingness with the rest of the global community.The Costs of Educational rapture The article explores the effects of Koreas valuing of education to the represents of attending the educational institution. Apparently, with the Koreans growing value for education and the educational institutions goals to enhance the quality of education, the costs of higher educations have also reached a high. The reasons underlying the high cost of education in the country was explored under different regimes.The influence of colonialism to the educational system of the country contributed much to the high cost that they require of education. Moreover, majority of educational institutions in the country require expensive judge for their services because most of them are privately owned. At this point, I ask myself, why do they need to pay expensive taxes for education when most of the educa tional institutions are private? There was not any change during the Park Chung Hees term as president of the country. During this time, education was neglected, therefore there were no efforts coming from the government to fix the problem expensive costs of education. Reflecting on it, education in the country has really become a social status, such(prenominal) that only those who can afford it are able to gain the quality education that they deserve. Moreover, the government does not care less whether the people are able to afford education. This reveals how the voices of those people who cannot afford to attend educational institutions are not being heard. Another factor that influenced the high costs of education was what the people called Kwaoe. Kwaoe is the Korean term for tutoring. This service requires large amounts of money that people cannot help but complain about its cost. At this point of time, the government was able to address this issue and ban tutoring all over the country. Throughout the years, noticeable efforts to alleviate the rising cost of education were evident when reviewing the performances of past governments.However, their efforts were not enough to lessen the cost of paying for an individuals education. The failure of governments to remodel their educational system is understandable, because from the beginning, the faulty budgeting and financing for educational institutions was adapted by the country. What the country needs to drub on is modifying the educational system in order to identify its flaws and once and for all end the high costs of education.

Nature And Nurture On Neural And Cognitive Development

Nature And Nurture On Neural And Cognitive DevelopmentThroughout history, an ongoing debate has taken vest regarding whether the evolution of certain aspects of an individuals career are take uped more through temperament or nurture. Those that argue for temper believe that genes influence an individuals development. Those that believe in nurtures influence claim that an individuals experience has more of an effect upon an adolescents temperament. Recently, questi angiotensin converting enzymers stir uncove bolshie evidence that it is not only nature or nurture that influences development, but a complex combination of both. This manuscript give attempt to cover several(prenominal) of the factors that influence an adolescents neural, cognitive, and emotional development. The degree to which nature and nurture influence these particular aspects of an individuals life will also be discussed. Lastly, this manuscript will briefly explore the possibility of genetics and environme nt off setting deficiencies in the one another. tidingsNeural Development nonpareil aspect of human development that has been focuse upon in research is that of neural development. During early prenatal neural development, the brain takes its initial shape as well as forms neurons which create a foundation for future neural development. To guide this development, neurons are directed either chemically or by other cells which act as signposts. This guiding allows neurons to form the distinct sections of the brain which include the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. It is during this formation neuron specialization takes place in that like-minded cells bunch together to process certain forms of information like auditory and visual. It is still controversial amongst researchers how this specialization occurs with some researchers believing that neurons possess a protomap (Rakic, 1988) man others believe that the functions of neurons are decided by the environmental inputs rec eived (OLeary, 1989). While most evidence found points to the latter return, there is still much research that needs to be performed (Broderick Blewitt, 2010).During later prenatal brain development, researchers find found that the sensory organs of the fetus have developed enough to receive and meet information from outside of the mothers womb. One psychoanalyse performed found that fetuses showed recognition to a point when a familiar nursery rhyme was played for the mother carrying the fetus (Decasper, Lecaneut, Busnel, Granier-Deferre, Maugeais, 1994). In another study, researchers sewed one eye shut of several kittens at birth. Several weeks later, the researchers opened the closed eyes and found the kitten had been rendered irreversibly blind in that particular eye (Wiesel Hubel, 1965). This research provided evidence that environmental neural stimulation was of the essence(p) for the neurons to initiate the connections that are needed for sight which, one whitethorn assume, would be the same for hearing as well (Broderick Blewitt, 2010).After birth, researchers have found that most neural development is associated with the creation of synapses rather than the product of more neurons as well as a pruning of arbitrary neurons. This production and pruning of synapses and neurons is a result of both the introduction of chemical substances to the neurons which leaven synaptic growth and the sensory information introduced to the neurons as a result of babe actions and environmental factors. As this sensory information is introduced, synapses are formed to jibe this new information. Greenough and Black (1992) discussed how during this period, ii types of synapses are created which are experience-expectant and experience-dependant. Experience-expectant synapses are synapses that are overproduced because they are synapses that have occurred regularly within the evolution of the species. It is when these synapses are not touch that problems such a s what was discussed above with the kittens occur. The formation of experience-dependant synapses, as the name would suggest, is dependant upon the amount of stimulation avail adequate to(p) from the experiences of the infant. Researchers have found that stimulating and complex environments have positive effects upon the growth of experience-dependant synapses in rat pups and other mammals (Kolb, Gibb, Robinson, 2003). The branching points that are left afterward this process are a direct result of genetics, conditions of the prenatal period, nutrition, and the infants experiences and environmental experiences after birth.Cognitive DevelopmentThe next developmental area on which this manuscript shall focus is that of cognitive development. During infancy, one area researchers have focused upon is an infants ability to remember and recall. Researchers have found that infants as young as three-days-old suck harder on pacifiers when they hear their mothers voice as opposed to that o f a stranger indicating a sense of recognition on the infants part (DeCasper Fifer, 1980). This recognition has been shown to improve throughout infancy. A newborns recognition period has been found to fade after a few minutes or seconds (DeCasper Spence, 1986) while, in other studies, three-month-olds have been shown to give recognition after several months (Bahrick Pickens, 1995). Likewise, recall has been shown to increase dramatically once it begins. Studies have shown that infants display recall of simple actions as early as nine months (Meltzhoff, 1988). Further studies have shown that 11-month-olds may recall simple actions for as great as three months and 20-month-olds may recall more complex actions for as long as a year later (Bauer, 2006).Research has also been preformed on cognitive development during an individuals preschool years. One area of study included the childs understanding of numbers. For example, Antell and Keating (1983) allowed a five-month-old to watc h as they placed a doll behind a screen and also as they added one additional doll. The infants displayed surprise if there was one doll present when the screen was removed while those that saw two were not. This would indicate that newborns have some knowledge of addition and subtraction. Another study by Gelman and Gallistel (1978) taught children to pick a plate with a larger number of items surrounded by two plates each with a differing quantity of items. After the researchers changed the way the items were arranged on the plate, the children expressed surprise at the change but were still able to correctly choose the plate with the larger number of items. A more recent study by Sigler and Ramani (2008) found that children who were introduced to number-based board games displayed a greater ability to correctly estimate a number on a number line than those who played games that did not include numbers. These studies give evidence for both the nature and nurture sides of the deba te.Emotional DevelopmentThe last developmental area focused upon within this manuscript is that of emotional development. Currently, researchers disagree upon the initial development of emotions. One contrast is that an infant is born with a set of basic emotions directly related to the neural processes that are related to the emotional expression of the infant (Izard, 2004). For example, if an infant looks angry, so it is angry. In contradiction to this theory, Sroufe (1996) believes that emotions start as undifferentiated responses that develop into differentiated responses which then develop into an emotional repertoire. Sroufe argues that emotions start this way because infants lack the cognitive processes with which to peg down emotional experiences. Both theories give indication of genetic origins of an individuals emotions.As emotional development continues, researchers have found that infants learn how to moderate their emotions for different situations. For example, duri ng one study by Jahromi, Putnam, and Stifter (2004) on infants emotional responses to inoculations, the researchers observed as mothers of two-month-olds soothed their infants. The researchers found that as the infants grew older the intensity and duration of the infants crying decreased which indicates an increasing emotional verify as infants grow older. The researchers believed that the change in the emotional control came about to a degree from the mothers interaction with the infant.Another study, by Tronick, Als, and Brazelton (1980), observed the exchange as mothers either responded positively or negatively towards their infants emotions. During the exchanges the mother was instructed to respond positively to the infants emotions which garnered a positive emotional reaction from the infant. The mother was then instructed to stop responding to the infant that garnered what researchers referred to as other-directed coping behaviors which are facial expressions and vocalization s designed to try and get the mother to resume their previous actions. As the mother continued this action the spoil became frustrated and took part in what the researchers referred to as self-coping behaviors such as thumb sucking and rocking. This research provides evidence that an infants adult caregiver provides critical support during an infants development of emotional self regulation (Broderick Blewitt, 2010).Gene ExpressionWhen discussing human development, the question of why certain genes express themselves while others do not is, many times, brought to the forefront. apiece gene is made up of alleles that a child receives from both their mother and their father. Alleles may be dominant or recessive. If an infant receives two dominant or two recessive alleles, the infant will display those characteristics. Sometimes, in the case of two dominant alleles, alleles express codominance such as in the case of a dominant Type A blood allele and dominant Type B blood allele the infant will express Type AB blood. If an infant receives one dominant and one recessive gene, the infant will display the characteristics of the dominant allele. For example, if a child receives a recessive allele for red bull from both parents, then the infant will develop red hair. If the same child had received a dominant allele for brown hair from one of the parents, the child would have developed with brown hair. This phenomenon may also be used to explain why certain genetic disorders express themselves when they do such as the defective recessive allele for sickle-cell anemia or the defective dominant allele for progeria (Broderick Blewitt, 2010).Nature and Nurture Off SettingOne would assume that, based upon the recent evidence that development is affected by both nature and nurture, that, in certain situations, one may be used to off set a deficiency in the other. The results provided in the following studies offer evidence supporting the phenomenon of epigenesis which i s the control of genetic expression through correlational statistics of both environmental and genetic factors (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). One study by Caspi, McClay, Moffitt, Mill, Martin, Craig, et. al. (2002) conducted to find out how different MAOA alleles, which release the enzymes controlling production of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, affect childrens susceptibility to the negative effects of abusive environments in the early years of life. The researchers found that in individuals that had experienced early child abuse, there was a bear on between the low MAOA allele and aggression. Likewise, in individuals that had not experienced abuse as a child, there was no correlation between the production of MAOA and aggression. Reiss and Neiderhiser (2000) discussed how some irritable children appear to inherit some qualities such as irritability from their parents which evokes a hostile environment from those around them only reinforcing their irritable tendencies. They further discussed how these tendencies may be off set by environmental circumstances that do not sustain their irritable behavior. Results such as those provided by this research on with many others shed light upon one of the many possibilities unlocked by the further research of the nature and nurture leaning.ConclusionThe nature versus nurture controversy has been strongly debated within the discipline of developmental psychology for many years. This manuscript cited many studies which have given evidence to the degree of influence both nature and nurture has on the neural, cognitive, and emotional development of an individual. From the results of these studies, it is easy to see that development is impacted by both nature and nurture in their own singular ways. Studies have even shown that it may be possible to off set certain deficiencies in genetics with environmental aspects or vice versa. The results of these studies provide important insight in to the behavior of an individual, how they may have developed that way, and how that particular form of development may be reversed or avoided in others. There is no doubt that as the depth of research into the nature versus nurture controversy grows those within the psychological community, as well as numerous other disciplines, will be able to assist a larger number of individuals with developmental problems with increasing levels of accuracy.

Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural Finance

Adaptive trade Hypothesis and Behavioural FinanceAn Essay on the Relationship between Andrew Los Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural Finance1.0IntroductionWhen in 1936, Keynes comp bed financial merchandises to a beauty con taste where competitors had to guess who the most popular choice would be, he did non imagined that economists would become fascinated with the contest for explaining the cogency or inefficiency of that mart. Indeed, the global financial crisis of 2008 brought to bare the bitter rivalry between traditional finance theorists and their behavioural copy everyplace the realism of assumptions explaining competitive food market equilibrium, rational choice theory and rational expectations. Prior to the crisis, the dominant view in mainstream stintings and finance (as exemplified in the assumptions of economical market supposal) had been that individuals are broadly rational, risk averse, maximize their expected utility of wealth, and follow the tenets o f subjective probability theory. Hence, the capital market is seen as perfect and generating financial returns which are unforecastcapable. To put it more aptly in the words of Fama (1970), prices amply reflect all operable information, an idea that has come to be kn avouch as market efficiency. However, the fallout from the financial crisis saw a bourgeoning interest in behavioural economics callable mainly to the failings of traditional economic theory to explain m each(prenominal) observed market anomalies.Behavioural economists pointed out a number of basic logical mistakes in the efficiency reasoning, which they attributed to behavioural biases and cognitive limitations, which are universal to human decision-making under(a) uncertainty. Some of the documented biases cited in Lo (2004) include overconfidence, loss aversion, overreaction, psychological accounting, herding, miscalibration of probabilities, hyperbolic discounting and regrets. Accordingly, the behaviourists op ine that these biases provided evidence that markets are non only inefficient, but that its participants are often irrational. Herein lies the intellectual crux of the debate, which has continue to shape the study and practice of economics and finance. Indeed, while some economists may want to uphold their firm beliefs in market efficiency and rationality, others may as well seek alternative approaches in behavioural finance. Between these devil approaches, however, there may be economists who seek for a compromise. This is where Andrew Lo classic work on the accommodative market hypothesis readily falls in.This essay offspring as follow section two explain the Adaptive Markets Hypothesis, its theoretical postulations and relationship with behavioural finance, section three critically examine this relationship, and section tetrad concludes the essay.2.0The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis (AMH) ExplainedAndrew Los adaptive market hypothesis was based on evolutionary principles of c ompetition, mutation, reproduction and natural selection in biology. Lo, in his 2004 germinal article on the Adaptive Market Hypothesis, suggests that individual makes choices based on past experience and their best guesses as to what might be optimal, and they learn by receiving positive or negative reinforcement from the outcomes, (and) if they receive no such reinforcement, they do not learn. Thus, the AMH implied that investor behaviours such as overreaction, loss aversion, overconfidence, and other behavioural biases are constructed and shaped by a dynamic interplay between investors internal cognition and their external environment that then produces evolutionary traits, in which heuristics develop, transform, boom or neglect out depending on the market settings.As an example, if a market setting is stable, heuristics is likely to yield an optimal or rational choice for investors. While an fluent market environment characterized by risks and uncertainties, yield confused fo rms of behavioural biases. In such instances, rational decisions are always evolving as investors develop a refreshful set of heuristics in reaction to a changing market environment. These views was developed further by Lo (2005), where he highlighted the main propositions of the AMH to include thatIndividuals act in their own self-interest.Individuals make mistakes.Individuals learn and adapt.Competition drives adaptation and innovation.Natural selection, shapes market ecology.Evolution determines market dynamics.In this context, Andrew Los AMH can be said to revolve well-nigh three main processes of heuristics development, learning, and an adaptation process of decision making, whose combined impacts on financial institutions help determine market efficiencies, and the waxing and waning of investment products, industries, and even up individual and institutional fortunes (Lo, 2005).2.1The Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural FinanceThe uncertainty associated with efficient market hypothesis had led behavioural finance scholars to conjure a departure from fully rational behaviours in finance models to behavioural biases or heuristics amongst investors that arguably explains human decision makings under uncertainty. Indeed, most empirical belles-lettres on behavioural finance have explained well-recognised market anomalies which contrast standard finance theories. Some of these studies include Kahneman and Tversky (1979), Bernard and Thomas (1990), Benartzi and Thaler (1995), Mehra and Prescott (2008), etc. however, none of this literature was able to present a coherent alternative model that could match the dominancy of standard finance literature. Fama (1998) aptly capture this non-coherence in their arguments when he said, a problem in developing an overall perspective on long-term return studies is that they rarely test a specific alternative to market efficiency, instead the alternative hypothesis is vague, market inefficiency.Thus, Andrew Los A MH was one main attempt at providing a philosophical and theoretical foundation for behavioural finance. Indeed, one stated objective in Los 2004 classic article was to reconcile understandings from efficient market hypothesis with behavioural finance and psychology. Like behavioural finance, AMH explains loss aversion, equity price premium, overreaction, urge based trading strategies, and other heuristic driven biases by the fact that in a dynamic market environment, investors develop new sets of mental frames or heuristics to solve various economic challenges. Specifically, using Herbert Simons notion of bounded rationality, Lo (2004) pointed out that the presence and persistence of behavioural biases can be best silent when we appreciate the fact that cooperation, competition, market-making behaviour, general equilibrium, and disequilibrium dynamics are all adaptations intentional to address certain environment challenges for the human species and then view these forces from t he lens of evolutionary biology.Besides, Lo posits that fear and greed which behaviourists often cite as a basis for irrational decision making are the products of evolutionary forces and adaptive behaviours that enhance the betting odds of survival. In this situation, emotions may be seen as an incentive system that determines investors behaviour and prompt them to engage in a cost-benefit analysis of various investment plans available to them. Consequently, there are no fixed rules for evaluating trading strategies as depending on market conditions, investors can engage in trade truncate it at various points and observe the consequences of their actions. For example, where investors are timely in their investment decisions, they come back and dominate the market if on the other hand, they are poor in market timing, they are easily eased out of the market. Hence, according to Lo supposition, market efficiency can-not be appraised in a vacuum, because is extremely context dependent and dynamic, thus resulting in a cycle of a mental frame selection process in which investors grow, mutate and thrive or face extinction (Lo, 2004). Moreover, under the AMH, market strategies evolve to adapt to an ever changing market environment, and is driven by profit opportunities, which according to Lo, is the main source on which market participants depend for their survival. 1 other main aspect of behavioural finance which the AMH shed light on is the existence of arbitrage opportunities. According to Lo, arbitrage opportunities appear and disappear due to adaptive responses to a changing market environment. In this fashion, investors adapt to match new economic challenges, by developing new heuristics that are necessary to evaluating any investment strategy and which in turn depends upon its survival value. Although profitability and risk reduction values are also important factors to consider, Lo pointed out that these factors come later on investors have undergone this f undamental market test.So what are the implications of the AMH for efficient markets and behavioural finance? Lo (2004) briefly outlines these implications to include thatThe equity risk premium are non-constant over time, but changes according to the recent path of the stock market.Risk/reward relations are nonlinear and non-stable.Arbitrage opportunities exist from time to time enthronization strategy, waxes and then wane depending on the environmentAdaptation and innovation are keys to survivalSurvival is the only objective that matters.3.0AMH or EMH? An evaluationFama (1998) emphasize that any alternative model to market efficiency ought to follow standard scientific rule, and should itself be potentially rejectable by empirical tests. Thus, in evaluating the relationship between AMH and behavioural finance, it is essential to consider an empirical test of how AMH differ significantly from the efficient market hypothesis (EMH), which the behaviourists seek to discard. While vari ous tests of market efficiency had been designed over the years using standard financial models in EMH, tests of AMH are relatively few given that the hypothesis has yet to become part of the mainstream of financial economics. However, an increasing number of studies had reported results which seems consistent with the AMH. Some of these studies include Neely, et al (2009) and Kim, et al (2011). Whereas Neely, et al (2009) found some regularities in profit opportunities that appear and disappears in a foreign exchange market, Kim, et al (2011) found strong evidence that return predictability is driven by changing market conditions. These findings implied that testable implications of AMH can be make by testing how the level of efficiency in a market varies significantly over time.Furthermore, another possible way to conceptualise a test of the AMH may be to investigate whether investment decisions are made based on selectivity and market timing since evolutionary principle implied that natural selection shapes market ecology. In this context, Hoffman, et al (2013) found some evidence of market learning during the financial crisis. As a matter of fact, conventional econometric tests for market efficiency using formal asset pricing models such as Sharpe 1964 CAPM and Mertons 1973 discrete time version of ICAPM would have been relevant alternative models to investigate these testable implications of AMH. Therefore, quite than see Los AMH as a behavioural alternative to market efficiency, it is better regarded as another strand of efficient market hypothesis.4.0ConclusionThis essay has discussed the adaptive market hypothesis and examined its relationship with behavioural finance. We conclude that whereas the AMH offers a philosophical foundation for analysing various behavioural anomalies described by behavioural finance, its theoretical underpinning however, reflects that of the efficient market hypothesis.ReferencesBenartzi, S., and Thaler, R., (1995), Myopic loss aversion and the equity premium puzzle, Quarterly diary of Economics, vol. 110 73-92.Bernard, V., and Thomas, J., (1990), Evidence that stock prices do not fully reflect the implications ofcurrent earnings for future earnings, Journal of Accounting and Economics, vol. 13 305-340.Fama, E., (1970), Efficient Capital Markets A Review of Theory and Empirical shit, Journal ofFinance, vol. 25(2) 383417.Fama, E., (1998), Market efficiency, long-term returns, and behavioral finance, Journal of FinancialEconomics, vol. 49(3) 283-306.Hoffman, A.I., Thomas, P., and Joost, M.E., (2013), Individual investor perceptions and behaviourduring the financial crisis, Journal of Banking and Finance, vol. 37(1) 60-74Kahneman, D., and Tversky, A., (1979), Prospect theory An analysis of decision under risk,Econometrica, vol. 47 263291.Kim, J., Lim, K., and Shamsuddin, A., (2009), Stock return predictability and adaptive marketshypothesis Evidence from century-long U.S. data, Unpublished.Lo, A., (200 4), The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis Market Efficiency from an EvolutionaryPerspective, Journal of Portfolio Management, 30th Anniversary Issue 15-29Lo, A., (2005), Reconciling efficient markets with behavioural finance the adaptive marketshypothesis, Journal of Investment Consulting, vol. 7(2) 21-44.Mehra, R., and Prescott, E., (2008), The equity premium ABCs Handbook of the Equity Risk-Premium, North Holland, Amsterdam The Netherlands.Merton, R., (1973), An intertemporal capital asset pricing model, Econometrica, vol. 41 867887Neely, C., Weller, P., and Ulrich, J., (2009), The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis Evidence from theForeign tack Market Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, vol. 44(2) 467-488.Sharpe, W., (1964), Capital asset prices a theory of market equilibrium under conditions of risk,Journal of Finance, vol. 19(3) 425-442

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Reco veryIntroductionSeparation of medicate addicts from these meanings during treatment has several(prenominal) implications on the general upbeat of the equivalent. It is because addicts dep polish offence on the drugs is very high and in closely instances, they nates hardly situation without the tempt of drugs. However, in wander to function executively, independence from drugs and inebriant is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and m in all new(prenominal) get aroundicularors that under(a)mine the total retrieval of the addicts. Studies conducted battle array that the process of trouble is funda psychical because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that keep down recovery. Indeed, mourning harmonize to psychoanalysts en up to(p)s the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relat ionships with kind-hearted beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality adopts a very inherent employment.This concept means contrasting things to different people but essentially, it has been be intimateed that the influence of the exacting Being enhances c argonn in character. At this point in beat, it is worth noning that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the whirl and reconstruction of individual(prenominal) narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review countenances an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance nuisance and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance sound coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic faces of the theoretical construct of the bow under review, psychodynamic perspectives on dependency, psychod ynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality offer be utilise in the construction of narratives, the action of the multiple code scheme on mourning and the bear on of rage and shame on the mourning process and crowning(prenominal) recovery of the addicts. common guess of affectObject relations possibilityOver clip, the rejects relations guess has gained popularity because of the feature that its application plays a funda psychogenic role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active seam of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different accepted differents that argon piece in that particular surround (Masterson, 1998). The term objective in this run across refers to the physical others as well as the others that atomic number 18 imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic surround and influence growth in d ifferent ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the assorted objects are a great submit initiated during the barbarianhood interactions that an babe has with a care eatr, the fuck off or both other individual that the baby shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this find show up that these early interactions back be modified and improved by dint of time collect to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, condescension the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent pith on a persons psychological well-being.The infant ordinarily interacts with and makes different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that bids take out and satisfies the infant when it is thirsty(p) is perceived as the true breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry acquires a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is ofttimes subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant lead astrays to internalize accepted objects and develops a sense of imagination. As much(prenominal)(prenominal) it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects whitethorn be a get theatrical performance of the real remote ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environment endings into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can and so be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts a re part of the stupefy.Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The diverse interactions with the parents lead to the development of a picky bond which further streng thuslyces the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future ablaze experiences of the small fry are highly influenced by the sensational relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine ulterior relationships with others.With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that rough-and-ready parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can hold open a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, de fective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture societally unexceptionable individuals, it is big that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy.Fairbairn (1952) in any(prenominal) case argues that in cases where the parents are lose, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the yield of the infant is stressed but renounces this realm, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationshi p with the mother during this decimal point. As a result, the infant bring forths stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not impellingly relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition.In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a obvious status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an authorized basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an free lance and complex individual who lives an independent life. This whence helps the child to understand and ack instantaneouslyledge the contributions of the mother in his or her lif e. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good replete mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medical practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate.The have theoryThis theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain morphologic expectations. Studies show that unsuccessful person to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the rent is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive lots inc reases with time (Grostein, 1981).With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly cardinal that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best set aboutes that they can utilise for rough-and-ready recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interpellations can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects.The Inter-subjective theory of affectThis theory presumes than in order to ring problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a minded(p) condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our unlike ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are funda psychic for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of terminology in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and is instrumental in initiating hearty relationships.In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to resign the isolation that characte rizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become unsafe to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulner talent then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes impermissible. It should be jazzd that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual.To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when set about with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the sharpness of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real ge nial relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties.The affect theoryTheorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an placement of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of distress or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through sm iling. The nine affects as identified by this theory embroil joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991).With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are unendingly prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be in good order utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they come along the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions whence (Tomkins, 1991 ).In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results indoors the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not wholly does this help the patients to save time and resources that are utilise in therapy, but it also improves their productivity.Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be gainsay that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory pl ays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its us capability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery.Psychodynamic perspective on addictionThis perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its competition is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in fut ure they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not make in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into mental illness at later stages of the childs life.According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the versed and force relate drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is obdurate by the extent of their u nderstanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ultimate reflection of an abnormality in self organization.The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of nonadaptive behavior, which in most instances is addict ive.Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this stadium using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author take on the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he sort out the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008).In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is immediately used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts see pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to b e a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction.Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that drama is thus an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of heartyization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection.Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made probatory contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by eager inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs exits because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings.Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result , he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reticent in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self wisdom to his inherent self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated.Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in wild activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive ac tivities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the mystic psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery the patient is the one to make the ultimate prime(prenominal) regarding the recovery from addiction.Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understa nd the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are amply addressed.Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He support this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is support by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analy tic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts.Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse.Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration.The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact t hat the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived.In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by nerve-wracking conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders.Psychodynamic perspectives of mourningMourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a exit of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain intent of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the disjointed object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the release and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999).The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in dilate by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first signifier according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized b y painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others.After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the at sea object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object.The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization.Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage.According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement.This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). Howeve r, this quarrel has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons.However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from paren ts. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same.Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often tell towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife whoRole of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and RecoveryRole of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and RecoveryIntroductionSeparation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role.This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is wort h noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts.General theory of affectObject relations theoryOver time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing.The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in th e mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environment results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother.Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others.With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy.Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind i nternalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition.In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medical practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate.The drive theoryThis theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basi cally destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981).With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can b e undertaken to avoid adverse effects.The Inter-subjective theory of affectThis theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickl y. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and is instrumental in initiating social relationships.In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual.To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emoti onal and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties.The affect theoryTheorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally th rough various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991).With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goa l and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991).In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity.Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an importan t role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery.Psychodynamic perspective on addictionThis perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key inf luences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into mental illness at later stages of the childs life.According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ultimate reflection of an abnormality in self organization.The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechan isms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive.Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008).In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction.Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection.Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalyti c who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful chi ldhood feelings.Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated.Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery the patient is the one to make the ultimate choice regarding the recovery from addiction.Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substan ce abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed.Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by va rious studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts.Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse.Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration.The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in o rder to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived.In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effect ive manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders.Psychodynamic perspectives of mourningMourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999).The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute signi ficantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others.After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object.The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization.Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process a re often organized during this stage.According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement.This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is importan t because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons.However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to gr ief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same.Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who

Understanding Antisocial Behavior in Children Essay -- Violence Violen

Understanding Antisocial Behavior in Children In northeast Pennsylvania, 9 year old Cameron catch seven-year-old Jessica with a rifle and then hid it. The reason for the argument was a disagreement over a video game. In Englewood, a suburb of Chicago, a seven-year-old and his eight-year-old outgo friend became the two youngest murder suspects in the US when they were accused of the murder and sexual assault of an eleven-year-old boy. His body was discovered in ava pott lot. In Stockholm, Sweden, four-year-old Ken was strangled by two boys, ages five and seven, who pressed a stick to his throat, suffocating him after he was thrown on his back (Czudner, 1999, viii). Stories such(prenominal) as those depicted above ar becoming increasingly common in todays society. Between the years of 1988 and 1992, juvenile arrests increased nearly 50% (Mayer, n.d. ). Where does this antisocial behavior stem from? How can a parent determine between routine misbehavior and the roots of antisocial behavior? What steps can a parent take to prevent antisocial behavior before it begins or curb it once it has begun? Possible answers to these questions will be addressed through the degree of this paper. The case that parents play in contributing to antisocial behavior will be discussed, as well. Before any action or cause can be introduced, it is necessary to investigate how to determine whether a child is participating in routine misbehavior or is exhibiting antisocial behavior. According to Levine, there are a number of signs that should signal to a parent that his or her child has antisocial tendencies. Lack of genuine affection, lack of empathy, overall rebellious attitude, lack of guilt, mistreatment of animals or smaller chil... ...ncesAsher, L. & Napier, M. (n.d.). Chicken wire mother. Retrieved November 1,2000, fromthe World Wide Web http//www.birdhouse.org/spong/napier/cwm.htmlCzudner, G. (1999). Small Criminals Among Us. New Jersey New Horizon Press.Demb o, M.H. (1994). In Applving Educational Psychology. (5th ed.). (pp.466-467).White Plains, NY Longman.Dryfoos, J.G. (1999). The role of the school in childrens out-of-school time. IM-Future ofChildren. 9, 117-132.Henslin, J.M. (1999). In Sociology A Down to Earth ApQroach. (5th ed.). (pp 202-204). Boston, MA Allyn & Bacon.Levine,K.G. (1.991). When Good Kids Do Bad Things. New York W.W.Norton&Company, Inc.Mayer, G.L. (n.d.)Prochnay, J.E. & Defronzo, J.V. (1997). The impact of economic and parentalcharacteristics on juvenile misconduct. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 5, 119-127.

Julius Caesar Essay -- essays research papers

Julius CaesarIn William Shakespeares play Julius Caesar, the literary element of the tragic hero is evident. In general, a tragic hero must meet several important qualifications. He must come from a good background and have high kind status, he must have a tragic flaw that leads to his downfall, and this flaw must be punished either by death or banishment. In this portrayal of the history of the Roman Empire, Shakespeare explores the lives of Julius Caesar and his acquaintances. Though all of the characters are very important to the plot of the play, none of them obtain the characteristics of a tragic hero as Caesar does.A major characteristic of a tragic hero is that he must come from a good background and obtain high amicable status. Julius Caesar fits both of these qualities. Not only is he the supreme ruler of Rome, but he is also a very wealthy and well-respected man as well. The quite a little of Rome respect Caesar for several reasons. They admire him because he cares for Rome, he governs Rome, and he has made it a great empire. Caesar is sometimes referred to as a dictator for deportment by the Roman pot. His army is also an awesome military force and is very capable of defending Rome as it displayed Pompey early in the play. The peoples love and respect for Caesar is evident when Caesar asks Mark Antony to touch Calphurnia to rid her of her barren curse. Antony responds to Caesars request by saying, I shall remember. / When Caesar says do ...